Instructional Technology- Domain of Design
Design is defined as the process of creating a detailed plan
to create something (Webster, 2002). As it applies to instructional technology,
design refers to the process of specifying conditions for learning (AECT, 2001).
In essence it encompasses the planning function for all elements of a
systematic process both on macro and micro levels utilizing a wide variety of
concepts and theoretical models. These plans become the specifications (macro
level) or blueprints (micro level) for practitioners to use. The goal of any
design activity is to develop a plan which deals with all relevant factors in
order to maximize success and provide resource utilization needs. Within the design domain four major
areas of theory and practice exist which pertain to specific areas if
instructional technology where analysis and design is a critical skill:
Instructional Systems
Design (ISD) refers to a problem solving approach which provides systematic
guidelines or framework for instructional designers to follow in order to create
any instruction. ISD processes presented in visual models are representations
of an instructional design process, showing the main elements or phases of the
design process, and their relationships. Instructional design models assume
that the instruction is a system whose
purpose is to bring about learning with a focus on interactive components of
learners, instructor, instructional materials and the learning environment (Dick
and Cary, 1996). Two generally accepted ISD models are: Dick
& Carey Model, and ADDIE
Model. Although different in terms of starting
point and interaction between phases, these models share major activities
described in the ADDIE model as: analysis, design, development,
implementation/ utilization, and evaluation.
(Chart adopted from AECT web sitehttp://www.aect.org/standards/knowledgebase.html, retrieved 3-1-05)
In the analysis phase, practitioners seek to answer the questions:
· Is instruction needed?
· If so, what learning or performance is needed under what conditions?
· What are the learner’s preferences, learning styles, and environmental factors which will impact learning?
· What sequential hierarchy of tasks and sub tasks must exist to take the learner from their entry level skills or knowledge to the overall learning objective?
Needs analysis is a critical component of the design process
as trainers and educators must be aware of the tremendous cost of creating
instruction for which there is no need (Dick & Cary 2001). Allison Rossett in his book “Training Needs
Assessment” describes a process of information gathering relative to the
current and desired performance (performance gap) as well as feelings and
attitudes towards causes and solutions. Techniques for analysis include
interviews, observations, extant data analysis, surveys, pretests, and focus
groups (Rossett, 1999). Mager and
Pipe (1984) also proposed a model for assessing need for instruction. If
instruction is deemed as the most viable solution a more in depth “front end”
analysis is conducted aimed at arming the practitioner with information relative
to learners, the learning environment, and context of learning which is used to
customize the design of instruction. Performance objectives are established
which are the detailed descriptions of what learners will do after instruction
(Dick & Cary, 2001). In essence they indicate the performance, conditions
and method of assessment. Based on
the needs assessment and overall performance objectives, instructional
technologists determine what sequential hierarchy of tasks and sub tasks must
exist to take the learner from their entry level skills or knowledge to the
overall performance objective? Top down, multi level flow charts are developed
which break down the overall desired performance goals into a hierarchy of subordinate
skills or performance tasks until reaching the known pre instruction (entry)
levels of learners which is established in the needs assessment learner
analysis. Performance objectives and assessment are developed for each subordinate
skill reflecting the type and conditions of learning involved. This road map of
skills/knowledge requirements serves as the basis for design and development of
instructional content. In the design phase, designers produce a specification
or plan as to how learning will occur which includes measurable objectives and
test items for each task/subtask, instructional strategies, and resource needs.
Development refers to the planning of the creation or development of
instructional materials identified in the design phase. Resource needs and
timelines are critical elements of this phase. The implementation phase
also must be planned as to where the instruction will be delivered, who will
deliver it and how. Evaluation refers to the Evaluation-Feedback-Revision
loop used during the ADDIE process of creating instruction (formative) and post
instruction measure of instructional effectiveness (summative). How and when
these evaluations occur must be incorporated into the overall ISD plan.
When initially addressing situations, an instructional technologist should select, modify, or create an ISD model that is appropriate for that situation based on information gained in the analysis phase as well as any constraints relative to resources, time, money, and other organizational issues. It is incumbent upon the Instructional Designer to match the learning theory to the context of the learning situation and the learner to determine the best strategies to meet the predetermined objectives (AECT, 2001).
"Message design involves planning for the manipulation of the physical form of the message" (Seels & Richey, 1994). In essence the instructional designer should refer to the learning objectives combined with the important factors uncovered in the front end analysis of learners, environment, and context to decide upon the types of media that will be utilized. Current media options include text, audiovisual, electronic, and internet based. Message design is integrally related to the instructional strategies.
"Instructional strategies are specifications for selecting and
sequencing events and activities within a lesson" (AECT, 2001). In essence they are strategies (macro) and
tactics (micro) which are the methods employed by the
instructional designer to design the learning events that ensure the learning
objectives are achieved. In considering what strategies to use for achieving
the performance objectives, designers consider what type of learning is to occur
and the conditions unique to types of learning outcomes. Gagne in his earlier work
“The Conditions of Learning” (1985) outlined the relation of learning
objectives to appropriate instructional conditions which should be present to
maximize learning. Gagne identifies five categories of learning: Verbal
Information, Intellectual skills, Cognitive Strategies, Attitudes, and Motor Skills. According to Gagne,
each of these taxonomies require unique conditions and instructional strategies
Given the analysis of learners, learning outcomes, and conditions for instruction, designers may chose to follow one of several models that have been developed by researchers relative to specifics of the design and delivery of the instruction. Many ID models based on various learning theories have been put forth which are outlined in Charles Reigeluth’s book “Instructional Design Theories and Models” (1999). In formulating the strategies for the design of specific instruction designers may choose to follow one of these models which can be compared using the following criteria:
1. What type of learning does the ID address?
2. Who controls the learning- instructor or learner?
3. What is the focus of the learning?
4. How will learners be grouped?
5. What types of interactions are needed?
6.
What
level of cognitive and emotional support for learners is needed?
Important constraints relating to the instructional environment and context must be considered as well as many characteristics of the learners including their entry level (pre-instruction) knowledge or skill. The design of strategy and tactics follows a systematic approach of developing performance tasks and sub tasks each with their own objectives, strategy and assessment which will take the learners from their entry level to ultimately achieving the instructional performance goals. In order to do this, practitioners design a plan as to what the content messages to learners are, their clustering (grouping) and sequencing, and how they will be delivered to the learner (text, multimedia, internet, etc.) for each performance task.
Learner characteristics are all facets of the learner's
which may impact the effectiveness of a learning process. Understanding the
target audience is critical to designing instructional strategies. The main
areas designers must analyze and consider are:
·
Attitudinal factors
such as learning motivation and attitudes towards content and different types
of instruction (learning preferences).
·
Learners style of
learning
·
Pre-Instructional
characteristics such as entry level skills and prior knowledge.
·
Physical skills, abilities, and limitations
·
Dynamics of learner
groups
·
Cultural differences
Techniques used for learner analysis include; pre-tests,
observations, interviews, surveys, data, prior performance, etc.
.
Demonstration of Design Competencies in linked artifacts:
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Domain of Design |
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Competencies |
Artifacts: - Sections |
Rationale for Inclusion |
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Conduct performance analysis and determine the appropriateness of instructional solutions for the problem |
MIT 502- Analysis and recommended strategies for
reduction of employee turnover: -Performance
gap analysis MIT 542- -Problem
definition MIT 520- Proposal for Cooperative Employee
Training Program:
- Project scope |
All of these products relied significantly on utilization of training needs assessment skills following Rossett (1999) model in order to quantify and qualify the problem, identify root cause(s) and ultimately justify a need for an instructional based solution if any. |
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Plan and conduct needs assessment. |
MIT 502- Analysis
and Recommended Strategies for Reduction of Employee Turnover: -Performance gap analysis MIT 542- - Situation findings MIT 513-Computer Based Instruction for Seizure
Management: - Needs analysis |
In these products the problem is further defined and stated in terms of a gap between actual and desired performance objectives. For clarity, each main objective is defined in measurable terms along with conditions and methods under which performance will be measured and assessed. |
|
Assess learner/trainee characteristics. |
MIT 542-
- Situation findings MIT 500-
Self Instruction Module for Nursing Competency: - Theoretical orientation and
rationale
MIT 513-Computer Based Instruction for Seizure
Management: - Needs analysis MIT 530- -Introduction |
These products involved the actual design and development of instruction which relied heavily on understanding all aspects of learners including entry level skills, attitudes, group dynamics learning styles, etc. A variety of techniques were utilized including surveys, tests, interviews, focus groups, and data research. |
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Analyze the characteristics of a setting (learning environment). |
MIT 542- - Situation findings MIT 500-
Self Instruction Module for Nursing Competency: - Theoretical orientation and rationale
|
These products are instructional modules whose content and delivery method were based in part on analysis of the learning environment as well as the environment in which actual learning is performed. The setting characteristics, culture, resources and constraints were analyzed. |
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Conduct analysis of jobs/tasks and content. |
MIT 502- Analysis and recommended strategies for
achieving management goals for reduction of
turnover rates: -Performance gap analysis MIT
530- - Implementation methods |
These products are instructional modules designed using a task analysis hierarchy. |
|
Sequence learner outcome |
MIT 500-
Self Instruction Module for Nursing Competency: -Performance objectives
and assessments MIT 513-Computer Based Instruction for Seizure Management: -Design |
These products are
instructional modules in which performance objectives have been sequenced and
clustered into lessons each of which has self assessment tools. |
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Specify instructional strategies and sequence the instructional strategies |
MIT 500- Self
Instruction Module for Nursing Competency: -Performance objectives and
assessments MIT 513-Computer Based Instruction for Seizure
Management: - Design |
These products are
instructional modules utilizing the framework provided in H. Gardner’s’
“multiple intelligences” instructional design model. Strategies were
developed to allow for multiple text, graphic, and video representations of
content. |
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Determine instructional resources (media/computer technology) appropriate to instructional activities. |
MIT 500-
Self Instruction Module for Nursing Competency: - Theoretical orientation and rationale
|
This instructional module
reflects design and development of new materials (video) which were
identified as critical to learning conditions for this type activity. |
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Select appropriate applied information technologies to achieve instructional objectives. |
MIT 513-Computer Based Instruction for Seizure
Management: - Design MIT 500-
Self Instruction Module for Nursing Competency: -Theoretical
orientation and rationale
|
These instructional modules were developed utilizing web and computer based delivery methods based on the factors identified in needs analysis. |