Instructional Technology- Domain of Design
Design is defined as the process of creating a detailed plan to create something (Webster, 2002). As it applies to instructional technology, design refers to the process of specifying conditions for learning (AECT, 2001). In essence it encompasses the planning function for all elements of a systematic process both on macro and micro levels utilizing a wide variety of concepts and theoretical models. These plans become the specifications (macro level) or blueprints (micro level) for practitioners to use. The goal of any design activity is to develop a plan which deals with all relevant factors in order to maximize success and provide resource utilization needs. Within the design domain four major areas of theory and practice exist which pertain to specific areas if instructional technology where analysis and design is a critical skill:
Instructional Systems Design (ISD) refers to a problem solving approach which provides systematic guidelines or framework for instructional designers to follow in order to create any instruction. ISD processes presented in visual models are representations of an instructional systems design process, showing the main elements or phases of the process and their relationships. Instructional system design models assume that the instruction is a system whose purpose is to bring about learning with a focus on interactive components of learners, instructor, instructional materials and the learning environment (Dick and Cary, 1996). Two generally accepted ISD models are: Dick & Carey Model, and ADDIE Model. Although different in terms of starting point and interaction between phases, these models share major activities described in the ADDIE model as: Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation.
(Chart adopted from AECT web sitehttp://www.aect.org/standards/knowledgebase.html, retrieved 3-1-05)
In the analysis phase, practitioners seek to answer the questions:
· Is instruction needed?
· If so, what learning or performance is needed under what conditions?
· What are the learner’s preferences, learning styles, and environmental factors which will impact learning?
· What sequential hierarchy of tasks and sub tasks must exist to take the learner from their entry level skills or knowledge to the overall learning objective?
Needs analysis is a critical component of the design process as trainers and educators must be aware of the tremendous cost of creating instruction for which there is no need (Dick & Cary 2001). Allison Rossett in her book “Training Needs Assessment” describes a process of information gathering relative to the current and desired performance (performance gap) as well as feelings and attitudes towards causes and solutions. Techniques for analysis include interviews, observations, extant data analysis, surveys, pretests, and focus groups (Rossett, 1999). Mager and Pipe (1984) also proposed a model for assessing need for instruction. If instruction is deemed as the most viable solution a more in depth “front end” analysis is conducted aimed at arming the practitioner with information relative to learners, the learning environment, and context of learning which is used to customize the design of instruction.
Performance objectives are established which are the detailed descriptions of what learners will do after instruction (Dick & Cary, 2001). In essence they indicate the performance, conditions and method of assessment. Based on the needs assessment and overall performance objectives, instructional technologists determine what sequential hierarchy of tasks and sub tasks must exist to take the learner from their entry level skills or knowledge to the overall performance objective? Top down, multi level flow charts are developed which break down the overall desired performance goals into a hierarchy of subordinate skills or performance tasks until reaching the known pre instruction (entry) levels of learners which is established in the needs assessment learner analysis. Performance objectives and assessment are developed for each subordinate skill reflecting the type and conditions of learning involved. This road map of skills/knowledge requirements serves as the basis for design and development of instructional content.
In the design phase, designers produce a specification or plan as to how learning will occur which includes measurable objectives and test items for each task/subtask, instructional strategies, and resource needs. Development refers to the planning of the creation or development of instructional materials identified in the design phase. Resource needs and timelines are critical elements of this phase. The implementation phase also must be planned as to where the instruction will be delivered, who will deliver it and how. Evaluation refers to the Evaluation-Feedback-Revision loop used during the ADDIE process of creating instruction (formative) and post instruction measure of instructional effectiveness (summative). How and when these evaluations occur must be incorporated into the overall ISD plan.
When initially addressing situations, an instructional technologist should select, modify, or create an ISD model that is appropriate for that situation based on information gained in the analysis phase as well as any constraints relative to resources, time, money, and other organizational issues. It is incumbent upon the Instructional Designer to match the learning theory to the context of the learning situation and the learner to determine the best strategies to meet the predetermined objectives (AECT, 2001).
"Message design involves planning for the manipulation of the physical form of the message" (Seels & Richey, 1994). In essence the instructional designer should refer to the learning objectives combined with the important factors uncovered in the front end analysis of learners, environment, and context to decide upon the types of media that will be utilized. Current media options include text, audiovisual, electronic, and internet based. Message design is integrally related to the instructional strategies.
"Instructional strategies are specifications for selecting and sequencing events and activities within a lesson" (AECT, 2001). In essence they are strategies (macro) and tactics (micro) which are the methods employed by the instructional designer to design the learning events that ensure the learning objectives are achieved. In considering what strategies to use for achieving the performance objectives, designers consider what type of learning is to occur and the conditions unique to types of learning outcomes. Gagne in his earlier work “The Conditions of Learning” (1985) outlined the relation of learning objectives to appropriate instructional conditions which should be present to maximize learning. Gagne identifies five categories of learning: Verbal Information, Intellectual skills, Cognitive Strategies, Attitudes, and Motor Skills. According to Gagne, each of these taxonomies require unique conditions and instructional strategies
Given the analysis of learners, learning outcomes, and conditions for instruction, designers may chose to follow one of several models that have been developed by researchers relative to specifics of the design and delivery of the instruction. Many ID models based on various learning theories have been put forth which are outlined in Charles Reigeluth’s book “Instructional Design Theories and Models” (1999). In formulating the strategies for the design of specific instruction designers may choose to follow one of these models which can be compared using the following criteria:
1. What type of learning does the ID address?
2. Who controls the learning- instructor or learner?
3. What is the focus of the learning?
4. How will learners be grouped?
5. What types of interactions are needed?
6. What level of cognitive and emotional support for learners is needed?
Important constraints relating to the instructional environment and context must be considered as well as many characteristics of the learners including their entry level (pre-instruction) knowledge or skill. The design of strategy and tactics follows a systematic approach of developing performance tasks and sub tasks each with their own objectives, strategy and assessment which will take the learners from their entry level to ultimately achieving the instructional performance goals. In order to do this, practitioners design a plan as to what the content messages to learners are, their clustering (grouping) and sequencing, and how they will be delivered to the learner (text, multimedia, internet, etc.) for each performance task.
Learner characteristics are all facets of the learner's which may impact the effectiveness of a learning process. Understanding the target audience is critical to designing instructional strategies. The main areas designers must analyze and consider are:
· Attitudinal factors such as learning motivation and attitudes towards content and different types of instruction (learning preferences).
· Learners style of learning
· Pre-Instructional characteristics such as entry level skills and prior knowledge.
· Physical skills, abilities, and limitations
· Dynamics of learner groups
· Cultural differences
Techniques used for learner analysis include; pre-tests, observations, interviews, surveys, data, prior performance, etc.
Demonstration of Design Competencies in linked artifacts:
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| Domain of Design |
||
| Competencies |
Artifacts: - Sections |
Rationale for Inclusion |
| Conduct performance analysis and determine the appropriateness of instructional solutions for the problem |
MIT 502 Analysis and recommended strategies for reduction of employee turnover: Performance gap analysis (pdf) MIT 542 Problem definition (pdf) MIT 520 Proposal for Cooperative Employee Training Program: Project scope (pdf) |
All of these products relied significantly on utilization of training needs assessment skills following Rossett (1999) model in order to quantify and qualify the problem, identify root cause(s) and ultimately justify a need for an instructional based solution if any. |
| Plan and conduct needs assessment. |
MIT 502 Analysis and Recommended Strategies for Reduction of Employee Turnover: Performance gap analysis (pdf) MIT 542 Situation findings (pdf) MIT 513 Computer Based Instruction for Seizure Management: Needs analysis (pdf) |
In these products the problem is further defined and stated in terms of a gap between actual and desired performance objectives. For clarity, each main objective is defined in measurable terms along with conditions and methods under which performance will be measured and assessed. |
| Assess learner/trainee characteristics. |
MIT 542 Situation findings (pdf) MIT 500 Self Instruction Module for Nursing Competency: Theoretical orientation and rationale (pdf)MIT 513 Computer Based Instruction for Seizure Management: Needs analysis (pdf) MIT 530 Data results (pdf) |
These products involved the actual design and development of instruction which relied heavily on understanding all aspects of learners including entry level skills, attitudes, group dynamics learning styles, etc. A variety of techniques were utilized including surveys, tests, interviews, focus groups, and data research. |
| Analyze the characteristics of a setting (learning environment). |
MIT 542 Situation findings (pdf) MIT 500 Self Instruction Module for Nursing Competency: Theoretical orientation and rationale (pdf) |
These products are instructional modules whose content and delivery method were based in part on analysis of the learning environment as well as the environment in which actual learning is performed. The setting characteristics, culture, resources and constraints were analyzed. |
| Conduct analysis of jobs/tasks and content. |
MIT 502 Analysis and recommended strategies for achieving management goals for reduction of turnover rates: Performance gap analysis (pdf) MIT 530 Implementation methods (pdf) |
These products are instructional modules designed using a task analysis hierarchy. |
| Sequence learner outcome |
MIT 500 Self Instruction Module for Nursing Competency: Performance objectives and assessments (pdf) MIT 513 Computer Based Instruction for Seizure Management: Design (pdf) |
These products are instructional modules in which performance objectives have been sequenced and clustered into lessons each of which has self assessment tools. |
| Specify instructional strategies and sequence the instructional strategies |
MIT 500 Self Instruction Module for Nursing Competency: Performance objectives and assessments MIT 513 Computer Based Instruction for Seizure Management: |
These products are instructional modules utilizing the framework provided in H. Gardner’s’ “multiple intelligences” instructional design model. Strategies were developed to allow for multiple text, graphic, and video representations of content. |
| Determine instructional resources (media/computer technology) appropriate to instructional activities. |
MIT 500 Self Instruction Module for Nursing Competency:Theoretical orientation and rationale |
This instructional module reflects design and development of new materials (video) which were identified as critical to learning conditions for this type activity. |
| Select appropriate applied information technologies to achieve instructional objectives. |
MIT 513 Computer Based Instruction for Seizure Management: MIT 500 Self Instruction Module for Nursing Competency: |
These instructional modules were developed utilizing web and computer based delivery methods based on the factors identified in needs analysis. |