What is Instructional Technology?
The Domain of Design
The Domain of Development
The Domain of Utilization
The Domain of Management
The Domain of Evaluation
Conclusion

The Domain of Design
The Domain of Design involves planning for all aspects of the process of developing a solution to a learning problem. In the design phase, the Instructional Designer employs a systems design approach, analyzes the learner and the learning situation, selects or designs the proper methods of instruction, selects or designs the learning materials, decides on the proper implementation of the instruction, and plans for the evaluation of the effectiveness of the instruction. The process is often described using the acronym ADDIE, signifying Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation (Anglada, n.d.). Within the ADDIE structure there are a number of models that specify the details of carrying out these broad areas. The Instructional Designer uses a knowledge of these models to select the proper one to guide his approach to a particular problem.

In the Design phase, the Instructional Designer must first conduct a needs analysis to determine that instruction or training is indeed called for. Not all problems can be solved by instruction, and it would be wasteful of human and material resources to design an instructional system which would end up not solving the problem. If instruction is the solution, the designer then must analyze the characteristics of the learner and the learning environment to attain the information needed to tailor the design of instruction. He must also analyze the tasks involved in achieving the ends of instruction. Included in this analysis are identification of the sub-skills of the task, the sequence in which they must be learned, and the prerequisite skills and abilities the learner must already have in order to begin the learning task. With the results of the analyses of the environment, learner, and task, the Instructional Designer writes the objectives to be attained by the training. In some models, such as Dick & Carey (1996), the related test items are prepared at the same time as the objectives. Although this is an element of the Evaluation domain, the domains often overlap. Although Dick & Carey's model is essentially linear, Instructional Design is not necessarily a linear process. Often aspects of several domains are progressing simultaneously; and the process is often iterative, cycling back to previous steps to refine the instructional design. Kemp's model (1994) of Instructional Design places the steps of design in a circle rather than in a straight line. The same processes are taking place, but the conceptualization of the process emphasizes a less restrictive approach in starting points and sequence. The R2D2 (Reflective, Recursive, Design and Development) model (Willis, 1995) is an even more flexible model. This model is non-linear, maintaining that any aspect of the design process can be revisited at any time (recursion). It is also based on the premise that one should not follow a prescribed flow of events, but be responsive to input from many sources, especially input from the learners.

The Instructional Designer relies on a knowledge of learning theory to determine the best way to impart the training to achieve the desired objectives. The selection of learning strategies and sequencing of instruction are based on the three major learning theories: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.

Behavioristic instructional design, patterned after the work of B. F. Skinner, is epitomized by programmed instruction. In this method, a learner is guided through small steps, with feedback at the conclusion of each step. The learner does not advance until he has mastered the present material. This method is controlled entirely by the program designer.

Cognitive instructional theory emphasizes the processes of learning in the brain and tries to design instruction so that it can best be grasped by the learner by matching the teaching process with the student's learning processes. Cognitivism attempts to facilitate reorganization of information in the brain to synthesize new learning with present knowledge.

Constructivist instructional design emphasizes the need for learners to react with and use new information in a process of constructing new knowledge. An outgrowth of Piaget's research, constructivists believe each person constructs reality in his own mind, and learning is the process of that construction. Constructivist design requires from the learner both input and involvement in the learning process. Hence, constructivist design tends to involve the learner in actual participation in realistic simulations or production of real products.
(For more complete comparison of instructional theories see Reigeluth, 1999, pp. 51-67).

It is incumbent upon the Instructional Designer to match the learning theory to the context of the learning situation and the learner to determine the best strategies to meet the predetermined objectives (AECT, 2001). A component of this process is message design, which involves selecting the proper hard and soft technologies to deliver learning. The design is largely inherent in the learning theory chosen, with attention to the learning principles of attention, retention, perception, and motivation.

To be an instructional designer is not to pick one theory or design model and serve as its proponent. Each instructional designer should develop his or her own philosophy of instructional design and, guided by that, judiciously use the design model or models that serve best to achieve success in the instructional environment presented by the instructional problem.