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" Design is the process of specifying conditions of learning. The purpose of design is to create strategies and products at the macro level, such as programs and curricula, and at the micro level, such as lessons and modules” (Seels and Richey, 1994, p. 30). During the design phase, the Instructional Designer employs a systematic approach by analyzing the learner, conducting a performance analysis to determine the needs, identifying the goals for instruction by assessing and analyzing the learning environment. After the analysis has been completed the Instructional Designer determines the goals and objectives, selects or designs the proper instructional strategies to use, determines the assessment strategies, selects or designs the learning materials, decides on the proper implementation of the instruction, and plans for the evaluation. It is important to note that the focus of this domain is on the design of instruction. During analysis and design designers select the best delivery system for instruction as well as sequencing the instruction into chunks for effective learning. The practitioners working in the design domain base their decision making on instructional models that are based on research and theories in the discipline of Instructional Technology. Instructional models are used by Instructional Designers as a visual representation or framework of the systematic process of instruction. The models provide structure to the problem solving process and help designers visualize how they would go about solving a performance problem and designing instruction. A widely used model by instructional designers is called the “ADDIE” model that stands for Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation. The ADDIE model is a generic model used as a guideline for developing effective instruction. The instructional designers begins with the analysis phase, which is the foundation for all other phases of instructional design process. During this phase instructional designers define the problem, identify the source of the problem and determine possible solutions. This phase may include specific research techniques such as needs analysis, job analysis, and task analysis. The outputs of this phase often include the instructional goals, selecting a delivery system for instruction as well as sequencing the instruction into chunks for effective learning. The next phasr involves developing learning objectives, identifying learning steps, developing test items, listing entry-level behaviors of the learners, and lastly sequencing the instruction. The next stage is the development phase, which builds on both the analysis and design phases. In the domain of development instruction is developed. Lesson plans are produced, developed and completed along with lesson materials and media (Chandler and Sweller, 1991). During the implementation phase the actual delivery of the instruction is conducted. The purpose of this phase is the successful and efficient delivery of instruction. It is important to promote student understanding of the material, support students’ mastery of objectives, and ensure transfer of knowledge. It is during the implementation process that formative evaluation takes place. Formative evaluation may be in the form of one-on-one testing, small group or field test all for the purpose of improving the instruction before the final version is implemented by the system. The evaluation phase measures the effectiveness of the instruction at all levels during the process in the form of formative evaluation and after the final version of instruction is implemented which is called summative evaluation. Formative evaluation occurs throughout the entire instructional design process. The overall effectiveness of the instruction is evaluated during the summative evaluation process. Figure 1 is a visual representation of the ADDIE model. The model is an interactive instructional design process where you can see that formative evaluation is an on going process during each phase and may lead the instructional designer back to any previous phase for the improvement of instruction.
Figure 1: The visual was adopted from itsinfo.tamu.edu/ consult/howtodesign.htm There are numerous models that instructional designers can utilize when given the task of designing instruction. Taxonomy of ID models can help clarify the fundamental assumptions of each model, and help identify the conditions under which the Instructional Designer would apply the most appropriate model. Gustafson's (1981, 1991) identifies three categories of models: classroom orientation models, product orientation models, and system orientation Models. Typically, a classroom ID model outlines only a few functions, and simply provides a guide for the teacher to develop instruction. For example, if instruction for the classroom were being developed, an appropriate model to follow would be Kemp's model. The Kemp (1994) design model takes a holistic approach to instructional design. Virtually all factors in the learning environment are taken into consideration including subject analysis, learnercharacteristics, learning objectives, teaching activities, resources, support services and evaluation.The oval shape of the model gives the designer the sense that the design and development process is a continuous cycle that requires constant planning, design, development and assessment to insure effective instruction.
An example of a product development model is Leshin, Pollock and Reigeluth model for strategies and tactics to improving learning and performance. System oriented ID models typically assume that a large amount of instruction, such as an entire course or entire curriculum, will be developed by a highly qualified team of instructional designers. The amount of front-end analysis is usually high in the systems approach as well as time spent in the amount of tryout and revision. Systems models, as a class, differ from product development models in the amount of emphasis placed on analysis of the larger environment before committing to development (Gustafson and Branch, 1991). One of the most widely known systems model is The Dick and Carey: The Systematic Design of Instruction. The design model describes all the phases of an iterative process that begins by identifying instructional goals. The Instructional designer will conduct a needs assessment and determine what is it that he/she wants learners to be able to do when they have completed the instruction. Needs analysis is followed by task analysis where the instructional designer determines the instructional goal and the steps necessary to perform the goal. At this phase entry behaviors of skills and knowledge are identified. Needs and task analysis are followed by learner and context analysis. When analyzing the learner, designers examine learners’ present skills, preferences and attitudes. When analyzing the environment designers identify characteristics of the instructional setting as well as the setting in which the skills will eventually be used. This process is known as context analysis. Using the results of the needs analysis, task analysis, goal analysis, learner and context/environmental analysis; designers develop performance objectives. Performance objectives are specific statements of what the learners will be able to do when they complete the instruction. Once performance objectives are formed, designers use the objectives to make assessment decisions. Assessment instruments measure the learner’s ability to perform what is described in the objectives. After the performance objectives are formed and assessment instruments are decided upon the instructional designers focus is on selecting the best instructional strategies. Examples of instructional strategies are pre-instructional activities, presentation of information, practice and feedback, testing, and follow-through activities. Using the results of the needs analysis, task analysis, goal analysis, learner and context/environmental analysis, the determined performance objectives and selected assessment instruments along with identifying the instructional strategies the designer selects and develops instructional materials. At this phase instructional designers can choose from existing materials or develop new materials and make decisions accordingly. Once the instructional designer takes into account all the systematic steps in the design process, they are ready to begin the formative evaluation phase. Formative evaluation is conducted by using one-to-one evaluation, small-group evaluation and a field test with identified learners. Instructional Designers analyze the results from the formative evaluation and identify difficulties in achieving the desired outcome of instruction. Revisions are made at each stage of instructional development as necessary. The last step in the Dick and Carey model is to conduct a summative evaluation at the completion of the instruction. Summative evaluation is a method of judging the worth of a program at the end of the program activities. The focus is on the outcome ( Bhola 1990). Summative evaluation assists in determining whether or not the instruction should continue. The Dick and Carey model is appropriate to use across a range of context areas (e.g., K-12 to business to government) and users (novice to expert). It is a learner-centered model. Regardless of the model used, they all share the processes of analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. The models also allows for the repetition of steps and for revisions to be made as new insight is gained. The domain of design includes the following four major subcategories: Instructional System Design |
