Domain of Instructional Design

Instructional design refers to “The process of deciding what methods are best for bringing about desired changes in student knowledge and skills for a specific course content and a specific student population” (Reigeluth 1993, p. 7). An instructional designer must ensure that the learning conditions are optimal for retention and transfer of the desired content. The process used to accomplish this feat is to effectively analyze the learning environment and decide upon the appropriate instructional design theories and models.

There are four subcategories within the domain of Instructional Design:

• Instructional systems design
• Message design (technological applications),
• Instructional strategies
• Learner characteristics.

Instructional Systems Design (ISD) is the process used to design and develop training or instruction. Instructional designers often follow a systematic approach during the design process referred to as instructional systems design (ISD) models. Although ISD models differ in details all of them use a systematic approach. In the systematic approach, designers Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate (ADDIE). These orderly steps are known as ADDIE. Designers may choose from several ISD models such as Dick and Carey or Kemp and Morrison to design a lesson or an entire curriculum, the majority of these models follow the ADDIE model as their general framework for design and development. For example, the Dick and Carey model is a more comprehensive model because it identifies several steps within each of the phases of ADDIE. (See comparison chart)

The analysis phase involves identifying instructional goals and gathering information about the learner characteristics and the learning environment. Before identifying the instructional goals designers often analyze learner performance to identify needs (gaps between current and desired performance). This process is also referred to as performance analysis, needs analysis or needs assessment. “Needs analysis allows the designer to take a fresh and data-driven look at the work, the worker, and workplace, to base training recommendations on opinions, practices and work products – not on habit, whim or arbitrary decrees” (Rossett, 1999, p. 62-68). The results of the needs analysis will help the designer identify a list of needs which are prioritized on the basis of importance. This list of needs are used to develop instructional goals. Goals will define expected learning outcomes. Before identifying goals, Learner characteristics are also explored. These characteristics may include learning styles, prior knowledge, and attitudes toward content. An analysis of the learning environment is also conducted in order to gain information regarding resources (hardware, software, instructional materials, etc.) and space available to the designer that may be used for instruction. This information will be collected and evaluated in order to determine the most effective design.

Once the needs and goals are identified and the learner/contextual analysis are complete, the next step is designing instruction. The design phase involves writing the performance objectives, sequencing the content based upon the previous analysis, and determining appropriate instructional strategies. In order to complete these tasks the Instructional Designers use a taxonomy of learning to classify the desired learner outcomes into specific categories (e.g., Gagne, Bloom). Classifying the learner outcomes is the basis for analyzing tasks, formulating the performance objectives, identifying instructional strategies and assessment items. Once the objectives and assessment items are complete designers will sequence the content of instruction using results of a task analysis. The result of the analysis and design phases is a design document or blueprint for the instruction that will be developed.

The development phase involves producing all instruction material based upon the design document, which could be print, audio-visual, electronic, or integrated technologies. The implementation phase involves the pilot testing of the newly developed material, which is usually conducted in three phases: one-on-one, small group, and field test. The evaluation phase measures the effectiveness of the new instruction in two ways; formative and summative evaluation. Formative evaluation takes place in every phase while summative takes place after implementation.

Message design is the process of choosing instructional media. The designers also use the analysis information to choose the appropriate message design for the instruction. Fleming and Levie (1978) say, "the more familiar the message is to its audience, the more readily it is perceived. The designer can minimize perceptual demands and facilitate learning by using familiar examples, digital or iconic, and by referring back to previous learning" (p. 56). Advanced organizers, graphics, audio, video, and text are the tools the designers use to ensure the learner receives the instructional message.

Instructional Strategies must be tailored to fit the needs of the learner and the goals of the instruction. This means that the instructional designer must select the appropriate theoretical models to make the instruction more effective for the learner. Designers use the information collected in the analysis and design phase to guide the decision making process for selecting instructional strategies. For example, suppose an industrial business wanted to train their employees on the proper techniques to operate a new machine. The designer may adopt the Learn by Doing theory of instruction because the primary goal of this theory is to foster skill development in the context of how it will be used.

Learner Characteristics according to Dick and Carey include entry behaviors, prior knowledge, attitudes toward content and delivery system, academic motivation, education and ability levels, learning preferences, attitude toward organization, and group characteristics. This information is collected through several methods including observation, interviews, surveys, and focus groups. This information will provide a list of the learner characteristics that will assist the designer in reaching decisions about objectives, instructional strategies, motivation, and assessment