Glossary

Air Force Model (1975) - The U.S. Air force model has five phases that are completed systematically but not necessarily linear. Although different phases of the model can be completed simultaneously, each step produces information that an instructional designer must use to accomplish later steps in the instructional systems design process (Seels & Glasgow, 1998). The Air Force Model also allows for feedback and interaction during each of its phases. This is to ensure that instructional designers reflect, communicate, and revise instructional materials to ensure that the instruction designed meets the needs of the clients. This model also emphasizes the management of both systems and instruction (Seels & Glasgow, 1998).

Air Force Model  

Air Force Model 1975 (adopted from Seels and Glasgow, 1998)

BACK TO TOP or BACK TO DOMAIN OF DESIGN

Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model (1996) - The Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model provides instructional designers with a more detailed approach than the ADDIE model. This model is a commonly utilized model that is comprised of interconnected boxes that drive the instructional design process. “The boxes represent sets of theories, procedures, and techniques employed by the instructional designer to design, develop, evaluate, and revise instruction” (Dick, Carey, & Carey, 2005). The Dick and Carey Model is presented to instructional designers in a linear format. At the same time, there is a major line that connects revision of instruction and feedback from the formative evaluation box back to the analysis portion of the model. This shows that even though the format is linear, instructional designers are constantly cycling through the process to make the revisions needed to ensure that the products satisfy the needs of both the learners and the clients.

Dick, Carey & Carey Model

Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model (adapted from Dick, Carey, & Carey, 2005).  

BACK TO TOP or BACK TO DOMAIN OF DESIGN

Howard M. Gardner’s – Multiple Approaches to Understanding - Gardner’s goal is to present information to learners in a way that is tailored to the students’ multiple intelligences (Reigeluth, 1999). 

Gardner's Multiple Approaches to Understanding
Multiple Approaches to Understanding (adapted from H. M. Gardner, 1999)

BACK TO TOP or BACK TO DOMAIN OF DESIGN

Robert Gagne’s - Taxonomy of Learning (1985) - Robert Gagne’s Taxonomy of Learning categorizes learning into five major types of learning capabilities: intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, verbal information, attitude, and motor skills.  Gagne’s taxonomy is utilized by instructional designers to identify prerequisite skills or knowledge that is necessary to learning. Also, Gagne’s Taxonomy of Learning (1985) can assist instructional designers through the process of sequencing instruction.

Gagne's Taxonomy of Learning

Gagne’s Taxonomy of Learning (adapted from R. M. Gagne, 1985)

BACK TO TOP or BACK TO DOMAIN OF DESIGN

Robert Gagne’s - Conditions of Learning Theory (1985) - Robert Gagne’s theory outlines a step-by-step process that involves nine steps that instructional designers must complete during the instructional design process. Gagne’s nine instructional events help instructional designers prescribe appropriate instructional strategies when designing and developing instructional materials. Each instructional event that Gagne lists requires instructional designers to think about the possible internal and external conditions that have an effect on the learning process (Gagne, 1985). Internal conditions are the already established learned capabilities of the learner or prior knowledge. External conditions deal with the presentation of stimuli to the learner (Gagne, 1985). The theory is based on information processing models that focus on the cognitive event that happen when learners are presented with a stimulus. Gagne’s theory is widely used in the instructional technology field because it can be adapted for all types of learning environments as well as all types of learning.

Gagne's Conditions of Learning

Gagne’s Conditions of Learning (adapted from R. M. Gagne, 1985)

BACK TO TOP or BACK TO DOMAIN OF DESIGN

Greer’s Instructional Development Project Management Model (1992) - Michael Greer’s project management model outlines the process of effectively managing an instructional development project. Greer’s model does not account for front-end analysis because Greer’s model assumes that a thorough front-end analysis has already been completed and training was deemed to be the most effective solution (Greer, 1992).

Michael Greer's Instructional Development Project Management Model

Instructional Development Project Management Model (adapted from M. Greer, 1992)

BACK TO TOP or BACK TO DOMAIN OF MANAGEMENT

John Keller’s - ARCS Model (1983) - John Keller’s ARCS model serves as a problem solving approach to designing motivational aspects to instruction. Keller’s model guides instructional designers through the process of designing and developing instructional materials that gain and keep the learner’s attention, make sure instruction is relevant to the learner, make sure learners are confident when completing the instructional objectives, and make sure learners are satisfied after instruction has happened (Keller, 1983).

Keller's ARCS Model

Keller’s ARCS Model (adapted from J. M. Keller, 1983)

BACK TO TOP or BACK TO DOMAIN OF DESIGN

Kirkpatrick’s Four Levels of Evaluation Model (1998) - Kirkpatrick designed a model that was hierarchical and represented in a pyramidal shape. The are four different levels of Kirkpatick’s model that guide instructional designers through the process of gathering information then the designer builds on the information through the remaining levels.

Kirkpatrick's Four Levels of Evaluation

Kirkpatrick’s Four Levels of Evaluation Model (adapted from D. Kirkpatrick, 1998)

BACK TO TOP or BACK TO DOMAIN OF EVALUATION

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1943) - Abraham Maslow (1943) argued that “unique qualities of human behavior: love, self-esteem, belonging, self-expression, and creativity” facilitate the decision-making process that allows individuals to be responsible for their own destiny (Schwalbe, 2007). Maslow’s theory provides instructional designers with a hierarchical representation of needs that must be met for each individual on a project team. If individuals have all their basic needs met, then they can be motivated to take on work challenges that foster creativity (Maslow, 1943).

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
 Hierarchy of Needs (adapted from A. Maslow, 1943)

BACK TO TOP or BACK TO DOMAIN OF MANAGEMENT

Richard Mayer’s - Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (2001) - Focuses on three assumptions in regards to multimedia learning environments:

  1. People possess separate channels (visual and auditory) to process information.
  2. People have a limited capacity for how much information they can process at any given time.
  3. People participate in active processing of information by selecting relevant information, organizing information, and integrating knowledge acquired with representations of the information within their own minds. (p. 44).

Mayer's Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning

Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (adapted from R. E. Mayer, 2001)

BACK TO TOP or BACK TO DOMAIN OF DESIGN

Morrison, Ross, and Kemp Model (1994) - Morrison, Ross, and Kemp’s (MRK) model provides instructional designers with a cyclical model that does not present phases in the instructional systems design process in a linear manner. Instead, this model provides instructional designers with a model that can be used regardless of where an instructional designer starts within the process. The authors of this model believed that with each instructional design project, instructional designers should be able to choose the starting place and possibly change the order in which the steps of the process are completed. The MRK model provides instructional designers with a model that can be used when a client decides the specific instructional strategies, technologies, and/or delivery method that the instructional designer must utilize to complete a project.

Morrison, Ross & Kemp Model

Morrison, Ross, & Kemp Model (adopted from Morrison, Ross, & Kemp, 2007) 

BACK TO TOP or BACK TO DOMAIN OF DESIGN

R2D2 Model (1995) - The R2D2 Model stands for recursive, reflective design and development (Willis, 1995). Recursive refers to the fact that decisions may be dealt with multiple times during the instructional systems design process because the R2D2 model does not require extensive analysis to be conducted (Seels & Glasgow, 1998). Reflective refers to how designers collaboratively provide feedback and reflection on the process to determine the best possible design and development of instructional materials (Seels & Glasgow, 1998). This model also focuses on design and development as a way of determining the learning objectives after focusing on creative solutions first. This is different from other ID models because the R2D2 model allows the instructional designer to collaborate and develop an instructional solution, while the objectives of the instruction become clearer as the project progresses.  The define focus of the model deals with how instructional designers define the problem using the help of project team members and end-users as well.  The disseminate focus of the model deals with diffusion and adoption rather than information gleaned from a summative evaluation.

 R2D2 Model 

R2D2 Model 1995 (adopted from Seels & Glasgow, 1998)

BACK TO TOP or BACK TO DOMAIN OF DESIGN

Reigeluth’s Description of Comparison Framework (1999) - Reigeluth provides instructional designers with a series of guiding questions that help to compare instructional design models to determine which model would be best based on the learning objectives, learner characteristics, and an environmental analysis. Using Reigeluth’s framework, designers compare models based on six points of comparison.  

Reigeluth's Framework for Comparison

Framework for comparing instructional strategies(adopted from Reigeluth, 1999)

BACK TO TOP or BACK TO DOMAIN OF DESIGN

Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovation Model (1995) - Rogers’ model consists of five stages that occur during the innovation-decision process:  knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation, and confirmation (1995).

Rogers Diffusion of Innovation Model

Roger’s Diffusion of Innovation Model (adopted from E. M. Rogers, 1995)

BACK TO TOP or BACK TO DOMAIN OF UTILIZATION

Schwartz, Lin, Brophy, and Bransford’s - Flexibly Adaptive Instructional Design - Schwartz et al. developed a framework that supports flexibly adaptive design that outlines ten steps to effectively design instruction. The goal of this model is to provide instruction that requires problem solving, collaboration, and communication within a problem-based learning environment (Reigeluth, 1999).

 Flexibly Adaptive Instrucitonal Design Model

Representation of Flexibly Adaptive Instructional Design (adapted from Schwartz et al., 1999)  

BACK TO TOP or BACK TO DOMAIN OF DESIGN

Seels and Glasgow’s ISD Model II: For Practitioners (1997) - Seels and Glasgow’s instructional design model assumes that project management is the context within which design occurs. Seels and Glasgow’s model (1997) calls for the formulation of a project management plan. The model breaks the instructional design process into three phases:

At the same time, instructional designers utilize diffusion of innovation strategies during each phase to ensure that successful implementation and institutionalization occurs.

Seels and Glasgow ISD Model

 ISD Model II: For Practitioners (adopted from Seels & Glasgow, 1998)

BACK TO TOP or BACK TO DOMAIN OF MANAGEMENT

John Sweller’s - Cognitive Load Theory (1988) - John Sweller builds a theory based on George Miller’s research on short term memory. Sweller theorizes that the chunking or combination of elements that an individual learns during the learning process makes up that individual’s knowledge base (Sweller, 1988).  Sweller further explains that working (short-term) memory has a limit. When there is an overstimulation of the working memory then it is hard for learners to retain the new information and convert it to long-term memory. By chunking information into manageable parts, learners can convert information from short-term to long-term memory. Once the learner has committed the information to long-term memory, the learner can then recall the information to working memory when needed.

BACK TO TOP or BACK TO DOMAIN OF DESIGN

Thamhain and Wilemon’s Influence and Power (1977) - Thamhain and Wilemon’s theory is utilized by instructional designers to determine what type of power and influence is necessary to motivate project team members. Power is considered to be more significant than influence (Schwalbe, 2007). The following graphic represents the balance between the different types of power and the different ways to influence people. As project managers, instructional designers must strike a balance to ensure the success of a project.

 Thamhain and Wilemon Influence and Power

Thamhain and Wilemon’s Influence and Power (adapted from Thamhain and Wilemon, 1997)

BACK TO TOP or BACK TO DOMAIN OF MANAGEMENT

Printer-Friendly Version